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Updating the Geography of Gender
There have been significant changes since the period that informed Boserup’s analysis, including:
the oil shocks of the 1970s and subsequent debt crisis and recession;
the structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) of the 1980s;
the collapse of some socialist societies and the managed transition to the market economy of others; and
the acceleration of the forces of economic deregulation, liberalisation and globalisation.
Most economies today are far more oriented to the market, far more open to international competition and far more integrated on a global basis than they were in the 1960s. The rest of this chapter looks at the extent to which changes in the wider economic environment have influenced the gender division of labour in different regions and modified the geography of gender described above.
Most economies today are far more oriented to the market, far more open to international competition and far more integrated on a global basis than they were in the 1960s.
Globalisation and the rise of flexible labour markets
Two factors have been particularly significant in driving the pace of globalisation:
the changing technology of transport and telecommunications, which served to compress time and space across the world; and
the dismantling of the regulatory frameworks that had provided some degree of national stability in markets for labour and capital in the post-war decades.
There has been a massive increase in world trade flows. Trade now accounts for 45 per cent of world Gross National Product (GNP) compared to 25 per cent in 1970. Much of this increase is in manufacturing, which accounts for 74 per cent of world merchandise exports (compared to 59 per cent in 1984). Developing countries have performed well in this sector. The share of manufactured goods in developing country exports tripled between 1970 and 1990 from 20 to 60 per cent. Exports in labour-intensive manufacturing have grown particularly rapidly, the most important and fastest growing being electronic components and garments. These accounted respectively for 10 and 6 per cent of total developing country exports in 1990–91.
There has also been a dramatic increase in the inter-
national mobility of capital. Capital flows in the industrial countries rose from around 5 per cent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the early 1970s to around 10 per cent in the early 1990s. The equivalent figures for transitional and developing countries were 7 and 9 per cent. Previously, transactions between countries occurred mainly in the form of trade in goods. Today, however, it is possible for individuals and firms to invest freely in foreign exchange and financial markets. This increased movement of capital between countries is often motivated by short-term opportunities to gain from more favourable interest or exchange rates. As recent crises in East Asia and Latin America have demonstrated, economies are extremely vulnerable to the ups and downs of this global market.
Different forms of labour, such as outworking, contract work, casual labour, part-time work and home-based work have been replacing regular, full-time wage labour.
However, the movement of labour has not been deregulated to the same degree. On the contrary, there have been increasing restrictions on the mobility of unskilled labour, particularly by the developed countries. Migration per 1,000 of population declined during this period from around 6.5 to 4.5 in the industrialised countries and remained static at around one elsewhere (though this does not take account of illegal labour movements, particularly increasing trafficking in women).
At the same time, within national economies, labour markets have become increasingly ‘informalised’ and social protection has been eroded. Different forms of labour, such as outworking, contract work, casual labour, part-time work and home-based work have been replacing regular, full-time wage labour. These changes have largely affected the organised labour force in industrialised countries and the small minority in formal labour in poorer countries. The overwhelming majority of the working population in these poorer countries is still engaged in livelihood strategies outside the formal, protected economy. These strategies include a diverse set of activities, contractual arrangements and working conditions. There is consequently a social hierarchy to the labour market, depicted in Fig. 3.1, that loosely overlaps with the economic pyramid depicted in Fig. 2.1.
The occupational hierarchy in the formal labour market consists of:
An elite group of wealthy industrialists, financiers, entrepreneurs, etc. at the pinnacle. They make the ‘rules of the
Figure 3.1: Social Hierarchy of Livelihoods
game’ in their society, are wealthy enough to ensure their own security and often take advantage of the growing global market in savings, pensions and insurance.
Salaried and professional classes. They generally enjoy a considerable degree of job security and social status in the labour market.
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women participation in politics lawal shehu | Oct 8th, 2010
women needs to be involved in political administration of their respective constituencies where information about their problems will be heard and addressed by the appropriate institution not necessarily the government but the voluntary institutions who cares about women.
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