|
|
A great deal of human behaviour is not the result of individual preferences. Rather, it is governed by institutional rules, norms and conventions that have powerful material effects on people’s lives. Institutions have been defined as the ‘rules of the game’ in a society. These rules may be written or unwritten, explicit or implicit, codified in law, mandated by policy, sanctified by religion, upheld by convention or embodied in the standards of family, community and society. They play a powerful role in shaping human behaviour, in terms of both what is permitted and what is prohibited. In the economy, they:
influence the gender division of labour between production and reproduction in different parts of the world; and
give rise to distinctive regional patterns in labour force participation and economic activity by women and men.
A great deal of human behaviour is not the result of individual preferences. Rather, it is governed by institutional rules, norms and conventions . . .
While institutions themselves are abstract concepts, they take concrete form in organisations – the ‘teams’ that play the game. There are four key categories of institutions, each with a particular domain (or area of influence) in society and each associated with a different set of organisations and groups. These are states, markets, civil society/community, and kinship/family (see box 3.1).
These institutions govern the processes of production, reproduction and distribution in a society. The way they are set up varies by level of economic development, structure of economy and extent of commodification (i.e. the extent to which a market value has been given to previously non-commercial goods and services). In terms of the productive pyramid shown in Fig. 2.1, there are likely to be differences across the world in the extent both of formal markets and state regulation and of subsistence production.
Box 3.1 Key Categories of Institutions in Society
States: The state is responsible for the overall governance of society. It enforces the rules and procedures that regulate how the different institutional domains interact. Access to state resources, including employment, is through its legislation, policies and regulations. Examples of state organisations include those associated with the bureaucracy, the police, the legislature, the judiciary and local government.
Markets: Markets are organised around a commercial logic – the maximisation of profit – and resources are exchanged on the basis of contract-based entitlements. Market-based organisations include firms, commercial farms, micro-enterprises, trade networks and multinational corporations.
Civil society/community: Civil society refers to a range of associations whose members pursue a variety of interests. The membership and goals are usually ‘chosen’, and members determine how resources and responsibilities will be distributed on the basis of some agreed set of principles. Such organisations include trade unions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and professional associations. Community is used here to refer to associations and groups based on what sociologists call ‘primordial’ ties. Membership of these groups is ascribed rather than chosen. Individuals’ access to their resources depends on how they are positioned in the group by these ascribed identities. Examples of community include caste, tribe and patron-client relationships.
Kinship/family: Kinship and family refer to forms of social organisation, including lineages and clans, that are based on descent, marriage and various forms of adoption or fostering. One of the key organisations associated with kinship and family is ‘the household’, usually based on shared residence and/or shared budgets. Elson calls households the site par excellence of ‘provisioning’, that is, “the activity of supplying people with what they need to thrive, including care and concern as well as material goods”.
Four key categories of institutions in society are: states, markets, civil society/community and kinship/family.
Institutions provide a structure, and hence a degree of stability, to everyday life. They reduce uncertainty, make certain forms of behaviour more predictable and allow individuals to co-operate with others to produce results that they would not be able to achieve on their own. At the same time, however – and whatever their official ideologies – institutions rarely operate in egalitarian ways. Rather, they tend to support hierarchical relationships organised around:
inequalities of ownership or access to the means of production (land, capital, finance, equipment);
achieved or acquired attributes (education, skills, contacts); and
various socially-ascribed attributes (gender, age, caste, etc.).
A variety of explanations and justifications are given for these hierarchies, including merit, capacity, aptitude, biology, nature or divine will. Institutions’ rules of access – and exclusion – also intersect and overlap (see box 3.2).
|
Tags
You must be logged in to add tags.
|
Writer Profile
FRANKLIN
This user has not written anything in his panorama profile yet.
|
Comments
women participation in politics lawal shehu | Oct 8th, 2010
women needs to be involved in political administration of their respective constituencies where information about their problems will be heard and addressed by the appropriate institution not necessarily the government but the voluntary institutions who cares about women.
AN HERBAL REMEDY FOR HERPES Mercy Junior | Apr 3rd, 2020
TRUE LIFE TESTIMONY,TRULY GOD IS GREAT...
GENUINE CURE WITH PROVE.. doctorelvisakhidenor@tutanota.com
HOW I GOT RID OF MY 6 YEARS GENITAL HERPES WITHIN 7 DAYS,GOD IS AWESOME!
THIS IS REAL,PLEASE DON'T IGNORE.
doctorelvisakhidenor@tutanota.com
I caught genital herpes from my Ex Husband in 2012,he never told me about the virus. I had it for 6 years with so many outbreak,and it affected my life.. People think herpes is really a minor skin irritation herpes has a long term effects on health. The stigma attached to this virus by ignorant people is ridiculous. Most people have herpes in one form or another,i was first taking Antiviral medicines, such as acyclovir(Zovirax), famciclovir (Famvir), and valacyclovir (Valtrex), are recommended for treating primary genital herpes outbreaks. This medicine can be taken when an outbreak occurs. It can also be taken every day to help prevent outbreaks,it is not a total cure... I will like to tell everyone who is reading this my testimony on how i get rid of my genital herpes.I was reading a comment on the internet,and i saw a testimony posted by a young lady from USA that she got rid of her herpes with the help of Doctor Elvis,a Traditional Herbalist from Nigeria.So i was so happy when i saw that post,that his herbal medication Cure the virus totally.I quickly copied the herbal doctor email address and i email him within 30 minutes he respond to my mail.I explain things to him he told me not to worry that i should fill his herbal form which i did..The next day he told me that he has prepare the herbal medicine,that i should send him my home address that he want to send his HERBAL MEDICINE to me via DHL or FedEx that was how i got the herbal medication and i use it as i was instructed.After a week i went to see a Medical Doctor who confirmed my herpes was no more.When Mira a friend of mine saw my HOSPITAL TEST RESULT she was surprise and i also introduce her to Dr ELvis and she also got cured from same Genital herpes Virus.
He also have a herbal cure for Following DISEASES,this is not scam is 100% Real.
-GENITAL AND ORAL HERPES
-HPV
-HIV
-DIABETES
-EPSTEIN BARR
-PENIS ENLARGEMENT AND WEAK ERECTION
-VIRGINA PROBLEM
-WHOOPING COUGH
- HEPATITIS A,B AND C
-FORDYCE SPOT
-COLD SORE
-ALS
-LOWER RESPIRATORY INFECTION
-LOW SPERM COUNT
-MRSA(METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS
-ZIKA VIRUS
-COPD
-STROKE
-IMPOTENCE
-PILE
-HYPERTENSION
-LOW SPERM COUNT
-MENOPAUSE DISEASE
-ASTHMA
-CANCER
-BARENESS/INFERTILITY
-PCOS
-SHINGLES
-VIRAL HEPATITIS/HEPATITIS B
-FIBROID
-ASTHMA
-SICKLE CELL
-TINNITUS
-YEAST INFECTION
-BARENESS/INFERTILITY
-DIARRHEA and so on...
Contact him today and you will have a testimony..I GOT CURED OF 6 YEARS GENITAL HERPES BY DR Elvis ,CONTACT HIM FOR HELP TODAY...
doctorelvisakhidenor@tutanota.com
GOD IS TRULY GREAT.
GOOD LUCK
doctorelvisakhidenor@tutanota.com
You must be a TakingITGlobal member to post a comment. Sign up for free or login.
|
|
